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Anemia prevalence in women of reproductive age in low- and middle-income countries between 2000 and 2018

  • Local Burden of Disease Anaemia Collaborators
    • University of Washington
    • Medical Teams International
    • Harvard University
    • African Population and Health Research Center
    • Mashhad University of Medical Sciences
    • McGill University
    • Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences
    • Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences
    • Tehran University of Medical Sciences
    • Cairo University
    • Tanta University
    • Jahrom University of Medical Science
    • Isfahan University of Medical Sciences
    • University of Southern California
    • Karolinska Institutet
    • NMSM Government College
    • Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais
    • Philippine Institute for Development Studies
    • University of Sharjah
    • Ain Shams University
    • London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine
    • Foundation for Scientific Research (FORS)
    • Hamedan University of Medical Sciences and Health Services
    • University of Ibadan
    • Griffith University Queensland
    • King's College London
    • University of Stellenbosch
    • University of Saskatchewan
    • Federal Ministry of Health
    • Ardabil University of Medical Sciences
    • National Institutes of Health
    • Georgetown University
    • Mayo Clinic Scottsdale, AZ
    • Qom University of Medical Sciences
    • MAHSA University
    • Southeast University, Nanjing
    • Lincoln Medical School
    • Jimma University Ethiopia
    • University of South Australia
    • Higher National Veterinary School
    • Jenderal Soedirman University
    • Arba Minch University
    • The Intercountry Centre for Oral Health (ICOH) for Africa
    • Washington University St. Louis
    • Department of Veterans Affairs
    • Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University
    • Instituto Nacional de Salud Publica
    • Ethiopian Public Health Institute
    • University of Health and Allied Sciences
    • Monash University
    • Iran University of Medical Sciences
    • Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences
    • Kuwait University
    • Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
    • Arak University of Medical Sciences
    • Jazan University
    • Sanaa University
    • King Abdulaziz University
    • Universidad de Cartagena
    • ALZAK Foundation
    • Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences
    • Mansoura University
    • Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy
    • The Bucharest University of Economic Studies
    • Wageningen University & Research
    • Tabriz University of Medical Sciences
    • Animal Science Research Institute, Iran
    • Zahedan University of Medical Sciences
    • Bahar Dar University
    • Universitas Sebelas Maret
    • Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences
    • Iranshahr University of Medical Sciences
    • Al-Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud Islamic University
    • Foundation University Medical College
    • Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Birjand University of Medical Sciences
    • Addis Ababa University
    • Independent Consultant
    • Babol University of Medical Sciences
    • University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston
    • Shiraz University of Medical Sciences
    • Thomas Jefferson University
    • Zanjan University of Medical Sciences
    • Mekelle University
    • Haramaya University
    • Maragheh University of Medical Sciences
    • Philadelphia University
    • University of Leicester
    • Wolaita Sodo University
    • La Trobe University
    • Curtin University
    • Debre Berhan University
    • Manipal Academy of Higher Education
    • University of KwaZulu-Natal
    • University of Lagos
    • Public Health Agency of Canada
    • University of Toronto
    • Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University
    • All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi
    • Bangladesh University of Health Sciences
    • Gondar University
    • Costa Rican Department of Social Security
    • University of Costa Rica
    • Aden College
    • Imperial College London
    • Ambo University
    • Gandhi Medical College
    • Wollega University
    • Yale University
    • Universidade de São Paulo
    • Adigrat University
    • University of Adelaide
    • Tribhuvan University
    • Government Medical College Pali
    • All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur
    • National Institute of Biomedical Genomics
    • University of Calcutta
    • Global Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies
    • Aga Khan University
    • IRCCS Istituto di ricerche farmacologiche Mario Negri - Milano, Bergamo, Ranica
    • University of Catania
    • University of New South Wales
    • European & Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership
    • University of Cape Town
    • Islamic Azad University
    • Institute for Advanced Studies in Basic Sciences, Zanjan
    • Petanux Research GmBH
    • University of Genoa
    • University of Florida
    • Employee State Insurance Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences and Research
    • University of Waterloo
    • Al-Shifa Trust Eye Hospital
    • Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne
    • Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires
    • Argentine Society of Medicine
    • Nanyang Technological University
    • Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana
    • University of Porto
    • National Institute of Health
    • Universidad Nacional de Colombia
    • Gorgas Memorial Institute for Health Studies
    • University of St Andrews
    • NHS National Services Scotland
    • Medanta Medicity
    • Padmashree Dr. D.Y. Patil University
    • Heidelberg University 
    • University of Melbourne
    • International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research Bangladesh
    • University of South Carolina
    • Ahmadu Bello University
    • Central South University
    • York University Toronto
    • Peking University
    • Public Health Foundation of India
    • Indian Council of Medical Research
    • Johns Hopkins University
    • BRAC University
    • Asian Institute of Public Health
    • Latin American Faculty of Social Sciences Mexico
    • Al Farabi Kazakh National University
    • Jamia Millia Islamia
    • Wellcome Trust
    • Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
    • Nepal Health Research Council
    • Far Western University
    • Shahroud University of Medical Sciences
    • Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
    • Universidad Autonoma de Sinaloa
    • Iranian Ministry of Health and Medical Education
    • Institute of Health Economics and Technology
    • Faculty of Allied Medicine
    • Hawassa University
    • Universidade Federal da Bahia
    • Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Saúde Pública
    • Universiti Sains Malaysia
    • Universitas Airlangga
    • Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam
    • Arsi University
    • Alexandria University
    • Ministry of Higher Education, Egypt
    • Nottingham Trent University
    • Wolkite University
    • Kerman University of Medical Sciences
    • Ministry of Public Health and Population
    • University of the Philippines
    • University of Pavia
    • Cihan University-Erbil
    • Cleveland Clinic Foundation
    • Mayo Clinic Rochester, MN
    • Morehouse School of Medicine
    • Emory University
    • Research Center for Environmental Determinants of Health, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences
    • Flinders University
    • Institute of Resource Governance and Social Change
    • Auckland University of Technology
    • Russian Academy of Medical Sciences
    • University of Ottawa
    • University of Milan - Bicocca
    • NAMS - Chebotarev Institute of Gerontology
    • RAS - Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology
    • Abadan University of Medical Sciences
    • University of the Witwatersrand
    • James Cook University Queensland
    • Kobe University
    • University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
    • Datta Meghe Institute of Medical Sciences
    • Madda Walabu University
    • Aksum University
    • Pfizer Vaccines
    • Agency of Preventive Medicine
    • Tarbiat Modarres University
    • Technical University of Denmark
    • The University of Lahore
    • Afro-Asian Institute
    • University of Massachusetts Boston
    • Boston University
    • University of Sulaimani
    • IRCCS Fondazione Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta - Milano
    • Jigjiga University
    • Binzhou Medical University
    • World Health Organization
    • Eternal Heart Care Centre and Research Institute
    • Arabian Gulf University
    • Wachemo University
    • Al-Azhar University
    • University of Queensland
    • University of Huddersfield
    • University of Newcastle
    • Utica College
    • University of Bergen
    • Guilan University of Medical Sciences
    • Independent Consultant
    • University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
    • Xi'an Jiaotong University
    • University of Oxford
    • London South Bank University
    • School of Nursing and Midwifery, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences
    • Nguyen Tat Thanh University
    • Yonsei University
    • Research Department
    • Duy Tan University
    • University of Human Development
    • National Institute of Legal Medicine Mina Minovici
    • Baylor College of Medicine
    • Hamad bin Khalifa University
    • University of Sydney
    • Rochester General Hospital
    • China Medical University Taichung
    • University of Belgrade
    • University of Kragujevac
    • Bangalore Baptist Hospital
    • Taipei Medical University
    • Deakin University
    • South African Medical Research Council
    • University of Pretoria
    • Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University
    • Substance Abuse Prevention Research Center, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences
    • Dr. Baba Saheb Ambedkar Medical College & Hospital
    • Banaras Hindu University
    • The George Institute for Global Health
    • Capital Medical University
    • New South Wales Health Pathology
    • All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhopal
    • University of Opole
    • University College Cork
    • University of Louisville
    • Yeshiva University
    • Qazvin University of Medical Sciences
    • University of Maryland, Baltimore
    • Utrecht University
    • University of Hohenheim
    • University of Nairobi
    • Debre Markos University
    • University of Management and Technology
    • Health Promotion Research Center (ZAUMS)
    • Jatiya Kabi Kazi Nazrul Islam University
    • International Institute for Population Sciences
    • Sheffield Hallam University
    • Ohio University
    • New Mexico State University
    • National Health Insurance Service
    • Xiamen University
    • Simmons College
    • Oslo Metropolitan University
    • Kristiania University College
    • Tulane University
    • Independent Consultant
    • Sher-I-Kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences
    • CIBERSAM
    • ICREA
    • Panjab University
    • Duke University
    • University of Montreal
    • University College London
    • Coventry University
    • McMaster University
    • University of Indonesia
    • NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre
    • Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research
    • University of Baghdad
    • Institute of Medical Sciences
    • Ministry of Health
    • Uppsala University
    • Father Muller Medical College Hospital
    • University of Milan
    • National Institute of Nutrition
    • Hong Kong Polytechnic University
    • Monash University Malaysia
    • Taylor's University Malaysia
    • Shenzhen University
    • University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
    • Fundação Oswaldo Cruz
    • BGS Global Institute of Medical Sciences
    • Egypt Ministry of Health and Population
    • Ministry of Health & Population
    • Mysore Medical College
    • Government of Karnataka
    • Urmia University of Medical Sciences
    • Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences
    • Shri Dharmasthala Manjunatheshwara University
    • Majmaah University
    • Technological Institution Colegio Mayor de Bolívar (Institución Tecnológica Colegio Mayor de Bolívar)
    • Federal Institute of Education
    • Botho University
    • ICF International
    • Janakpuri Super Specialty Hospital Society
    • Govind Ballabh Institute of Medical Education and Research
    • University of California at San Francisco
    • University of Oslo
    • United Nations
    • University of Helsinki
    • Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin
    • University of Lausanne
    • Ananthapuri Hospitals and Research Centre
    • Kyrgyz State Medical Academy
    • National Center of Cardiology and Internal Disease
    • Kashan University of Medical Sciences and Health Services
    • Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences
    • King Saud University
    • Salahaddin University-Erbil
    • Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences
    • University of Missippi
    • Mizan-Tepi University
    • Samara University
    • University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences
    • IRCCS Ospedale Infantile Burlo Garofolo - Trieste
    • King Abdullah University of Science and Technology
    • Universidade Estadual de Campinas
    • Fatima Memorial Hospital
    • The Children's Hospital & The Institute of Child Health
    • Institute of Mother & Child Care
    • Egyptian Center for Evidence Based Medicine
    • Research and Analytics Department
    • Bioinsilico Technologies
    • University of Alabama at Birmingham
    • Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology
    • Kursk State Medical University
    • Suraj Eye Institute
    • Ministère de la santé publique de Cameroun
    • Université de Yaoundé I
    • Makerere University
    • Bucharest Emergency Hospital
    • Cardio-Aid
    • University of Embu
    • Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences
    • National Hospital Abuja
    • University of Liverpool
    • Central Queensland University
    • University of Bucharest
    • Western Sydney University
    • Kyung Hee University
    • Gulu University
    • Golestan University of Medical Sciences
    • Centre for Healthy Start Initiative
    • Ekiti State University
    • University of Nigeria
    • Universidad Autónoma de Madrid
    • Higher School of Economics
    • Jagadguru Sri Shivarathreeshwara Academy of Health Education and Research
    • Center for Health Outcomes & Evaluation
    • Somnogen Canada Inc
    • Ministry of Health, Indonesia
    • University of Pittsburgh Medical Center
    • Population Council
    • Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai
    • R.D. Gardi Medical College
    • Murdoch Children's Research Institute
    • Yenepoya University
    • Integrated Development Foundation Nepal
    • University of Groningen
    • Alborz University of Medical Sciences
    • Fundación Valle del Lili
    • Universidad ICESI
    • Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta
    • Sharif University of Technology
    • University of Alberta
    • Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences
    • Maharishi Markandeshwar Institute of Medical Sciences & Research
    • Federation University Australia
    • Khazar University
    • Society for Health and Demographic Surveillance
    • University of Göttingen
    • University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
    • Policy Research Institute
    • Global Center for Research and Development
    • Srinivas Institute of Dental Sciences
    • River Region Cardiology Associates
    • Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN)
    • University of Copenhagen
    • Birjand University of Medical Sciences
    • University of Minnesota Twin Cities
    • University of Rwanda
    • Universidade Federal de Uberlândia
    • School of Medicine
    • National Institute for Medical Research Tanga
    • University of Botswana
    • Food and Drug Administration of the Islamic Republic of Iran
    • Soran University
    • Central University of Punjab, Bathinda
    • Madras Medical College
    • PSG-FAIMER South Asia Regional Institute
    • University of British Columbia
    • Hamad Medical Corporation
    • Bournemouth University
    • Indian Institute of Public Health
    • Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology Delhi
    • Manian Medical Centre
    • Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology
    • Ziauddin University
    • Independent Consultant
    • Dilla University
    • University of Southern Denmark
    • University of Borås
    • B.M. Patil Medical College
    • University of Edinburgh
    • National Institute of Infectious Diseases
    • Finnish Institute of Occupational Health
    • University Hospital Alexandrovska
    • Sofia University St. Kliment Ohridski
    • University of Technology Sydney
    • Tufts University
    • Dow University of Health Sciences
    • Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University
    • National Institute for Research in Environmental Health
    • Moscow Research and Practical Centre on Addictions
    • Balashiha Central Hospital
    • Semnan University of Medical Sciences
    • International Medical University
    • King Hussein Medical Center
    • University of Jordan
    • University of Valencia
    • Instituto de Salud Carlos III
    • Osaka Prefectural Hospital Organization
    • Arba Minch College of Health Sciences
    • Research Center for Molecular
    • Rajshahi University
    • Central University of Kerala
    • Christian Medical College
    • Modestum LTD
    • The University of Auckland
    • Maurice Wilkins Centre
    • Hanoi Medical University
    • Arabian Gulf University
    • All India Institute of Medical Sciences
    • University of Twente
    • National University of Medical Sciences
    • Alex Ekwueme Federal University Teaching Hospital Abakaliki
    • Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki
    • Amity University, Noida
    • Milad General Hospital
    • Velez Sarsfield Hospital
    • University of Bologna
    • S. Orsola-Malpighi Polyclinic
    • Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City
    • Wuhan University
    • Australian National University
    • Federal Institute for Population Research
    • Naresuan University
    • University of Rajarata
    • Wenzhou Medical University
    • Duke Kunshan University
    • Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Big Data-Based Precision Medicine
    • University of Sheffield
    • The University of Tokyo
    • The University of Hong Kong
    • Hubei University of Medicine
    • Fazaia Medical College
    • Air University, Islamabad
    • University Ferhat Abbas of Setif
    • University of Pennsylvania
    • Russian Medical Academy of Continuous Professional Education
    • Wuhan University of Science and Technology

    Research output: Contribution to journalArticlepeer-review

    160 Citations (SciVal)
    Original languageEnglish
    Pages (from-to)1761-1782
    Number of pages22
    JournalNature Medicine
    Volume27
    Issue number10
    DOIs
    Publication statusPublished (VoR) - Oct 2021

    Funding

    This study was funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Co-authors employed by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation provided feedback on initial maps and drafts of this manuscript. Otherwise, the funders of the study had no role in study design, data collection, data analysis, data interpretation or writing of the final report. The corresponding author had full access to all the data in the study and had final responsibility for the decision to submit for publication. R.A. received consultancy/ speaker fees from UCB, Sandoz, Abbvie, Zentiva, Teva, Laropharm, CEGEDIM, Angelini, Biessen Pharma, Hofigal, AstraZeneca and Stada. Dr. Bell reports grants from the Wellcome Trust Foundation, grants from the NIH, grants from the Environmental Protection Agency, personal fees from the University of Montana, other from the NIH and grants from the Yale Climate Change and Health Center, all outside of the submitted work. Dr. Gessner reports employment from Pfizer Vaccines, outside of the submitted work. Dr. Islam reports grants from the National Heart Foundation of Australia and grants from the NHMRC, outside of the submitted work. Dr. Jozwiak reports personal fees from Amgen, personal fees from Alab Laboratories, personal fees from Teva, personal fees from Synexus, personal fees from Boehringer Ingelheim and personal fees from Zentiva, outside of the submitted work. Dr. Krishan reports non-financial support from the UGC Centre of Advanced Study, CAS II, Department of Anthropology, Panjab University, outside of the submitted work. Dr. Mendoza reports employment as a program analyst in Population and Development at the United Nations Population Fund-UNFPA Country Office in Peru, which does not necessarily endorse this study. Dr. Pandi-Perumal reports non-financial support from Somnogen Canada and personal fees from royalties, outside of the submitted work. Dr. Postma reports grants and personal fees from MSD, grants and personal fees from GSK, grants and personal fees from Pfizer, grants and personal fees from Boehringer Ingelheim, grants and personal fees from Novavax, personal fees from Quintiles, grants from Bayer, grants and personal fees from BMS, grants and personal fees from Astra Zeneca, grants and personal fees from Sanofi, personal fees from Novartis, personal fees from Pharmerit, other from Health-Ecore, other from PAG, other from Asc Academics, grants and personal fees from IQVIA, grants from bioMérieux, grants from the WHO, grants from the European Union, grants and personal fees from Seqirus, grants from FIND, grants from Antilope and grants from DIKTI, LPDP, Budi, all outside of the submitted work. Dr. Rezahosseini reports grants from the Research Foundation of Rigshospitalet and grants from the A.P. Møller Fonden, outside of the submitted work. Dr. Shivarov reports salary from PRAHS, outside of the submitted work. Dr. Uddin reports as having worked as a visiting fellow at Deakin University Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN). IPAN paid for travel (including flights and transportation), accommodations and meals. E.Upadhyay is listed on two patents: ‘A system and method of reusable filters for anti-pollution mask’ (pending) and ‘A system and method for electricity generation through crop stubble by using microbial fuel cells’ (pending). Dr. Wu reports grants from the Ministry of Science and Technology in China, personal fees from HealthKeepers, grants from Suzhou Municipal Science and Technology Bureau and grants from Kunshan Government, outside of the submitted work. Dr. Zhu reports grants from UTHealth Innovation for Cancer Prevention Research Training Program Pre-doctoral Fellowship (Cancer Prevention and Research Institute of Texas, grant no. RP160015), during the conduct of the study. This work was primarily supported by grant OPP1132415 from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Lucas Guimarães Abreu acknowledges support from Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES) – Código de Financiamento 001, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) (404710/2018-2 and 310797/2019-5), Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa de Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG) and Pró-Reitoria de Pesquisa (PRPq) of Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais. Olatunji Adetokunboh acknowledges the Department of Science and Innovation and National Research Foundation for its support. Syed Aljunid acknowledges the Department of Health Policy and Management, Faculty of Public Health, Kuwait University and International Centre for Casemix and Clinical Coding, Faculty of Medicine, National University of Malaysia for the approval and support to participate in this research project. Alaa Badawi acknowledges support by the Public Health Agency of Canada. Josip Car acknowledges their post at Imperial College London, which is supported by the NIHR NW London Applied Research Collaboration. Felix Carvalho acknowledges UID/MULTI/04378/2019 and UID/QUI/50006/2019 support, with funding from FCT/MCTES through national funds. Vera Marisa Costa acknowledges her grant (SFRH/BHD/110001/2015), received by Portuguese national funds through Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT), IP, under the Norma Transitória DL57/2016/CP1334/CT0006. Jan-Walter De Neve acknowledges support by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. Kebede Deribe acknowledges support by the Wellcome Trust (grant no. 201900/Z/16/Z) as part of his International Intermediate Fellowship. Sagnik Dey acknowledges support from IIT Delhi for the Institute Chair position. Marcel Ausloos, Adrian Pana and Claudiu Herteliu are partially supported by a grant from the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research and Innovation, CNDS-UEFISCDI, project number PN-III-P4-ID-PCCF-2016-0084. Claudiu Herteliu is partially supported by a grant co-funded by the European Fund for Regional Development through the Operational Program for Competitiveness, project ID P_40_382. Claudiu Herteliu and Adrian Pana are partially supported by a grant from the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research and Innovation, CNDS-UEFISCDI, project number PN-III-P2-2.1-SOL-2020-2-0351. Praveen Hoogar wholeheartedly thanks the Centre for Bio Cultural Studies (CBiCS), Directorate of Research, Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Manipal. Sheikh Mohammed Shariful Islam is funded by a Fellowship from the National Heart Foundation of Australia and NHMRC. Oommen John is the recipient of an UIPA scholarship, UNSW, Sydney. Md. Nuruzzaman Khan acknowledges Jatiya Kabi Kazi Nazrul Islam University, Bangladesh. Yun Jin Kim acknowledges support by the Research Management Centre, Xiamen University Malaysia (grant no. XMUMRF/2020-C6/ITM/0004). Kewal Krishan acknowledges support by a DST PURSE grant and the UGC Centre of Advanced Study (CAS II) awarded to the Department of Anthropology, Panjab University. Ben Lacey acknowledges support from the NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre and the BHF Centre of Research Excellence, Oxford. Iván Landires is member of the Sistema Nacional de Investigación (SNI), which is supported by the Secretaría Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación (SENACYT), Panamá. Alberto Ortiz acknowledges their research, which is supported by FRIAT, ISCIIII FEDER funds RETIC REDINREN RD016/0009. George Patton acknowledges support from an NHMRC research fellowship. Maarten J. Postma reports various grants and honoraria from public and private partners and shareholdership in two health economics consultancies. Rajesh Kumar Rai received financial support from the West Bengal State Department of Health and Family Welfare, India (memo no. 114-P&B/ HFW-27011/114/2019-NHM SEC). Milena Santric-Milicevic acknowledges the support received from the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia (contract no. 175087). Feng Sha acknowledges support from the Shenzhen Science and Technology Program (grant no. KQTD20190929172835662). Aziz Sheikh acknowledges Health Data Research UK. Adithi Shetty acknowledges Kasturba Medical College, Mangalore and Manipal Academy of Higher Education for the support and encouragement. B. Suresh Kumar Shetty acknowledges Kasturba Medical College, Mangalore and Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal for the encouragement and support provided. Mohammad Reza Sobhiyeh acknowledges the clinical research development center of Imam Reza Hospital Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences for their wise advice. Riaz Uddin is supported by the Alfred Deakin Postdoctoral Research Fellowship. Charles Shey Wiysonge’s work is supported by the South African Medical Research Council. Sojib Bin Zaman received a scholarship from the Australian Government Research Training Program in support of his academic career. Yunquan Zhang was supported by the Key Research Center for Humanities and Social Sciences in Hubei Province (Hubei University of Medicine) (grant no. 2020ZD001).

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